Abstract
Rockets have been around for centuries. The earliest rockets, developed in ancient China, were similar to modern fireworks and were primarily used for military purposes. In the 18th century, the Kingdom of Mysore in India famously deployed iron-cased rockets against the British East India Company.
In 1903, Russian high school mathematics teacher Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices, laying the theoretical groundwork for modern rocketry.
The Space Race, which spanned from 1945 to 1969, saw intense competition between the USA and the Soviet Union. This rivalry fueled rapid advancements in space technology, leading to the creation of legendary rockets like the Saturn V (USA) and the N1 (Soviet Union).
In the decades that followed, rockets such as the Ariane family (Europe) and futuristic designs continued to advance space exploration. Today, a significant proportion of global space launches rely on SpaceX’s Falcon 9, a partially reusable and highly versatile rocket.
Looking ahead, major missions like NASA’s Artemis II and III (returning humans to the Moon), China’s lunar exploration efforts, and the development of two new space stations promise to push the boundaries of human spaceflight even further.
Intruduction
Rockets come in various sizes, efficiencies, and costs, and they can be developed by both private companies and government agencies. Regardless of their size or purpose, all rockets operate based on Newton’s Third Law of Motion, relying on fuel for propulsion. Most rockets are designed to carry payloads into orbit, and these are known as orbital launch vehicles—the primary focus of this review. Currently, all operational spacecraft rely on conventional chemical propulsion, using either solid-fuel or liquid bipropellant engines for launch. A few have incorporated air-breathing engines in their first stages to improve efficiency.
History
Rockets come in various sizes, efficiencies, and costs, and they can be developed by both private companies and government agencies. Regardless of their size or purpose, all rockets operate based on Newton’s Third Law of Motion, relying on fuel for propulsion. Most rockets are designed to carry payloads into orbit; these are known as orbital launch vehicles, which are the primary focus of this review. Currently, all operational spacecraft rely on conventional chemical propulsion, using either solid-fuel or liquid bipropellant engines for launch. A few rockets have incorporated air-breathing engines in their first stages to improve efficiency.
Across Asia and Europe, rockets have been used for centuries for two main purposes:
- As military weapons—such as bows with rocket-boosted arrows or missiles.
- As fireworks for celebrations and ceremonies.
Some rockets still serve these roles today.
In 1944, the German V-2 rocket became the first man-made object to reach space when it crossed the Kármán line, marking a significant milestone in rocketry.
After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR at the time) engaged in a fierce competition for technological supremacy known as the Space Race. The USSR achieved many early milestones, including:
- The first animal in space (Laika the dog)
- The first human in space and in orbit (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961).
While the US initially lagged behind, it made a historic leap in 1969 when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the Moon during the Apollo 11 mission, effectively winning the Space Race.
Following Apollo, NASA shifted its focus to developing the Space Shuttle, envisioned as a cheaper, reliable, and partly reusable spacecraft. However, costs were much higher than expected, and two catastrophic disasters—Challenger (which exploded during launch) and Columbia (which disintegrated during reentry)—tragically claimed the lives of 14 astronauts. Additionally, the shuttle required extensive refurbishment between missions and could only deliver 24,400 kg to Low Earth Orbit. It was retired in 2011.
After its retirement, the only way for astronauts to reach the International Space Station (ISS) was aboard the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. However, due to growing geopolitical tensions, NASA sought to regain independent launch capability using an American-built rocket.
Present
Currently, SpaceX, Blue Origin, and other private companies are leading the way in rocket launches. Among these, SpaceX stands out with its impressive portfolio:
- Falcon 9, the most frequently launched and most reused rocket to date.
- Falcon Heavy, the most cost-effective heavy-lift rocket.
- Starship, which is poised to be the largest, cheapest, most massive, and tallest super-heavy launch vehicle ever built.
Companies like Rocket Lab specialize in launching small satellites into specific orbits, offering more tailored services.
Many modern rockets today are partly reusable, meaning that key components—such as the first stage—are recovered and reused after each launch. This approach reduces both operational and development costs while maintaining simplicity in rocket design and operations.
Active Launch Vehicles
India – ISRO & Private Sector
- PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle)
- Type: Medium-lift, four-stage rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~1,750 kg to Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO)
- Propulsion: Alternating solid and liquid stages
- Use Case: Earth observation, navigation, and science satellites
- Status: Highly reliable; experienced a rare failure on its 101st mission in May 2025
2. GSLV Mk II (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle)
- Type: Three-stage medium-lift rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~2,500 kg to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO)
- Propulsion: Solid, liquid, and cryogenic stages
- Use Case: Communication and weather satellites
3. LVM3 (Launch Vehicle Mark-3)
- Type: Heavy-lift, three-stage rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~10,000 kg to Low Earth Orbit (LEO); ~4,000 kg to GTO
- Propulsion: Two solid boosters, liquid core, and cryogenic upper stage
- Use Case: Gaganyaan crewed missions, heavy payloads
4. SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle)
- Type: Small-lift, three-stage solid rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~500 kg to LEO
- Use Case: Rapid deployment of small satellites
- United States – NASA, SpaceX, ULA, Blue Origin
- Type: Partially reusable, two-stage rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~22,800 kg to LEO
- Propulsion: Merlin engines (kerosene/LOX)
- Use Case: Satellite launches, ISS resupply, crewed missions
2 .Falcon Heavy (SpaceX)
- Type: Heavy-lift, partially reusable rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~63,800 kg to LEO
- Use Case: Large payloads, interplanetary missions
3. Starship (SpaceX)
- Type: Fully reusable, super-heavy-lift rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~100,000+ kg to LEO (projected)
- Use Case: Mars missions, lunar landings, bulk satellite deployments
4. Atlas V (ULA)
- Type: Two-stage rocket with optional solid boosters
- Payload Capacity: ~18,850 kg to LEO
- Propulsion: RD-180 first stage, Centaur upper stage
- Status: Being phased out; final launches scheduled through 2025
5. Vulcan Centaur (ULA)
- Type: Next-generation heavy-lift rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~27,200 kg to LEO
- Propulsion: BE-4 engines (methane/LOX)
- Use Case: National security, commercial launches
6. New Glenn (Blue Origin)
- Type: Two-stage, heavy-lift rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~45,000 kg to LEO
- Propulsion: BE-4 engines
- Status: Entered service in January 2025
Japan – JAXA
- H3
- Type: Two-stage, medium-to-heavy-lift rocket
- Payload Capacity: ~4,000–6,500 kg to GTO
2. Epsilon
- Type: Solid-fuel, small-lift rocket
- Launch Site: Uchinoura Space Center, Kagoshima Prefecture
Russia – Roscosmos
1. Soyuz-2
. Type: Three-stage, medium-lift rocket
. Launch Sites:
- Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan
- Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia
- Vostochny Cosmodrome, Russia
- Guiana Space Centre, French Guiana
2. Angara Family
. Angara-1.2: Small-lift, ~3,500 kg to LEO
. Angara-A5: Heavy-lift, ~24,500 kg to LEO
. Launch Sites:
- Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia
- Vostochny Cosmodrome, Russia
China – CNSA & CALT
1. Long March 5
- Type: Heavy-lift, two-stage rocket
- Launch Site: Wenchang Space Launch Site, Hainan Province
2. Long March 6
- Type: Small-lift, two-stage rocket
- Launch Site: Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center, Shanxi Province
3. Long March 7
- Type: Medium-lift, two-stage rocket
- Launch Site: Wenchang Space Launch Site, Hainan Province
4. Long March 8
- Type: Medium-lift, two-stage rocket
- Launch Site: Wenchang Space Launch Site, Hainan Province
United Kingdom – Orbex & Skyrora
1. Orbex Prime
- Type: Two-stage, small-lift rocket
- Launch Site: SaxaVord Spaceport, Unst, Shetland Islands, Scotland
2. Skyrora XL
- Type: Three-stage, small-lift rocket
- Launch Site: SaxaVord Spaceport, Unst, Shetland Islands, Scotland
Future
There are many space launches planned for the future. NASA’s Artemis II and III missions will send astronauts to the Moon. India is preparing for its first manned mission and developing its own space station. China is planning multiple lunar missions. Many countries and private companies are also planning missions to explore different parts of the solar system. In addition, several new rockets are being developed, both by government agencies and private companies, to support these ambitious plans.
Artemis program
Artemis II and Artemis III are NASA’s missions to the Moon that will test the Orion spacecraft and the Human Landing System (HLS). Artemis II will be the first crewed flight of the Orion spacecraft, orbiting the Moon but not landing. Artemis III will be the first crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in 1972, aiming to return humans to the lunar surface and establish a sustainable human presence.
Artemis II
- The first crewed flight of the Orion spacecraft .
- Will take humans beyond the Moon .
- Was originally planned for April 2026, but was delayed due to issues with the Orion spacecraft’s heat shield .
Artemis III
- The first crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 .
- Will send the first humans to explore the lunar South Pole .
- Was originally planned for late 2024, but was delayed to no earlier than 2029.
- Will include a compact seismometer suite to study the Moon’s crust and mantle .
Gaganyaan Mission
The first phase of India’s human spaceflight program focuses on developing and flying the Gaganyaan spacecraft, which weighs 3.7 tons and is designed to carry a three-member crew into low Earth orbit (LEO). This mission will aim to safely return the crew to Earth after a duration of a few orbits to two days. An extended version of the spacecraft will eventually enable missions lasting up to seven days, as well as rendezvous and docking capabilities.
Before the flight of the Gaganyaan module, Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla is scheduled to fly on the Axiom-4 Mission to the International Space Station (ISS) to gain operational experience.
In the next phase, the program plans to develop a small habitat module to support spaceflight missions of 30–40 days, paving the way for longer stays in space. These experiences and advancements will eventually contribute to the development of an Indian space station.
ISRO is also working on spacecraft docking and berthing technology, with initial funding of ₹10 crore approved in 2017. As part of this effort, the Space Docking Experiment (SPADEX) is being developed, featuring systems like signal analysis equipment, a high-precision videometer for navigation, and a docking mechanism.
China’s Moon Mission
China aims to achieve a manned lunar landing by 2030. By conducting a series of pre-crewed flight tests and subsequent manned lunar missions, China plans to support large-scale space science experiments focusing on three key areas: lunar science, lunar-based science, and resource exploration and utilization. Advanced electronics and real-time decision-making systems for landing operations are being developed in multiple stages to ensure a safe and precise landing on the lunar surface.
Author Name
Ryan Bose